1?引述的內(nèi)容不同，用不同的詞來指代

無論是寫什么類型的學(xué)術(shù)文章，我們都需要引述別人的觀點(diǎn)的觀點(diǎn)。在英語里有很多引述觀點(diǎn)的詞，如find，suggest, discover, support, show, indicate, cite, confirm等等，除了他們用于引述不同的內(nèi)容，意思區(qū)別，有很多詞還隱含作者本身的觀點(diǎn)，甚至有褒貶義，所以用的時(shí)候并不是完全通用的，下面就讓我們來分別看下吧。

1. reporting research activities: （引述研究活動(dòng)）

這類詞有discuss, look at, examine, study, investigate, consider (+noun phrase)，一般后面加名次詞組，引述的內(nèi)容一般是別人做了一個(gè)什么樣的調(diào)查。

2. reporting findings: （引述研究的發(fā)現(xiàn)）

這類詞有discover, find, suggest, indicate, show (+that…)，后面一般加that引導(dǎo)的賓語從句，引述的內(nèi)容是別人做了研究以后得出的結(jié)論或者發(fā)現(xiàn)。

3. reporting arguments: （引述論點(diǎn)）

這類詞有suggest, indicate, argue, point out, claim, note (+that)，右面一般也加that引導(dǎo)的賓語從句，引述的內(nèi)容是別人的論點(diǎn)。

2?不同的詞不可以進(jìn)行互換

第二個(gè)問題就是reporting arguments的時(shí)候，并不是所有的詞都是可以互換的，很多詞在潛意識(shí)中就已經(jīng)隱含了作者本人的觀點(diǎn)。具體來看一下：

1. argue：中文里這個(gè)詞翻譯成“爭(zhēng)論”，感覺肯定不是中性的（想一下，面紅耳赤，像兩只公雞 ）。但是argue在英文里恰恰就是個(gè)非常中性的詞，describing somebody’s reporting idea。所以引述別人的論點(diǎn)，比如“某某認(rèn)為…”“某某的觀點(diǎn)是…”，不摻入任何作者的感情色彩。

2. claim和assert這兩個(gè)詞慎用！如果你說“某某claims/asserts…”往往表示了你的反對(duì)的觀點(diǎn)。claim比assert稍稍好些，claim表示你不認(rèn)同某某的觀點(diǎn)；而assert在中文里就翻譯成“宣稱”，也就是說你不僅不認(rèn)同某某人的觀點(diǎn)，還認(rèn)為某某人簡(jiǎn)直就是無稽之談，胡扯八道，毫無理由。如果你用了這兩個(gè)詞，你就要舉出強(qiáng)有力的反對(duì)理由去反駁這個(gè)某某人的觀點(diǎn)，否則…我覺得還是不要那么強(qiáng)烈的把人家否定了。

3. cite, refer, 和state。Cite和refer后面都要加引用的原文，也就是要用引號(hào)引起來的，而state則要paraphrase，也就是轉(zhuǎn)述，但不能用人家原來的語句。

3?時(shí)態(tài)問題要注意

中國的語法教育，從來都是為語法而語法，語法正確，一切正確，事實(shí)上并不是這樣的。時(shí)態(tài)也能表現(xiàn)你的觀點(diǎn)。

引述一般有三種時(shí)態(tài)：過去時(shí)，現(xiàn)在時(shí)和現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)。

一般來說，過去時(shí)是最客觀的，因?yàn)榘l(fā)生在過去，你也用過去時(shí)來陳述，跟你有一定的距離，所以是比較客觀?？梢杂脕碇С郑部梢杂脕矸瘩g。

如果你用了現(xiàn)在時(shí)或者現(xiàn)在完成時(shí)，就跟你扯上關(guān)系了，一般來說或多或少表示你贊同這個(gè)觀點(diǎn)。The research findings may correspond to the writer’s own opinion, the current state of knowledge or the research itself may be close to the writer’s own research.

記住一個(gè)問題：雖然寫argument的文章我們需要表達(dá)自己的觀點(diǎn)，但是你的觀點(diǎn)一定要客觀分析而來，而不是主觀的個(gè)人的觀點(diǎn)。老外是很奇怪的，他們又希望你能表達(dá)出自己的看法，但是又要你的看法是要大家都能接受的，又要把你個(gè)人的觀點(diǎn)巧妙的隱藏起來。

4?人物指代要清晰

中國學(xué)生寫作最大的問題，就是一篇短短200－400字的論文中，各種人物粉末登場(chǎng)，I，we，you輪番上陣，走馬觀花象跑龍?zhí)椎?，搞的老外頭昏腦漲。在formal writing中，為了使argument有說服力，最好不要出現(xiàn)太多的人物——因?yàn)槟悴皇窃趯懶≌f。下面就I，we，you的問題分別討論一下。

We

Avoid ‘we’, because it is often unclear who ‘we’ refers to. You and your marker? You and a co-author? The whole world???

It is also very bad style to refer to yourself as ‘we’—writers sometimes do it when they have problems with their essay and they want to ‘distance; themselves from it, saying in effect, ‘Do not blame me for this result’.

Avoid ‘we must teach like this’ or ‘we should concluded that…’. If you do this, you are making two mistakes. First, you are telling your marker what to think and do (not a good idea) and second, you are limiting your own position. You are saying ‘things are defined and clear cut’, whereas they are often NOT!

You

Avoid ‘you’. It is too personal and conversational. That the ‘expert talking to learner’ style used in textbooks and handbooks is NOT appropriate in formal writing, since you are still a learner.

I

You can use ‘I’ at several points, but making certain the sentence refers to something you are, as a student and as the author of the assignment, responsible for. Thus you could put ‘I shall divide the argument into two main sections’ (you could also write ‘the argument is divided into two main sections’). On the other hand, you do not want to write, ‘I have argued elsewhere that adults learn grammar faster than children’, as this makes you sound like a world expert with 30 books published!

Try and avoid ‘I think X is a good idea’. We want you to argue the case WHY X is or is not appropriate, rather than simply assert(=state) that you think it is. This is one of the big differences between conversation and university assignments. In an assignment, you have to make sure you give the evidence for opinions and you need to use impersonal verbs like ‘seem’.

Thus you would write, ‘Smith would seem to be wrong in arguing that…’ or ‘This seems incorrect’, rather than ‘I think Smith is wrong’.

5?一些注意事項(xiàng)

1 Aviod "can","should"

大概是媒體語言看多了，中國人說話自然而然帶了一種官腔。西方人同我們不同，他們希望看到的是你有什么具體的方法解決具體的問題，而不是每天拿著小旗幟揮，喊slogan——我們應(yīng)該怎么樣，我們必須怎么樣——but HOW？

You can use 'can' to describe yourself as in this sentence: 'It is hoped that the essay CAN...'.?However, you had better not use 'can' as in 'The teachers can do something...', which sounds like an order. The same or we say even worse with 'should'.

If you say 'the government should...', it would be a very bad style. You are learners but not policy makers--the only thing you can do is to argume or make suggestion but not ORDER/DEMAND/FORCE. What you can do is to argue convincingly and try your best to persuade others but not force them to believe. Don't make yourself so important--as you are, in fact, not important! You can try 'may''had better''might' more.

2 Avoid emotional and poetic words

避免詩情畫意的用詞。在formal writing中，人就是人，沒必要說a famous writer，也沒必要出現(xiàn)一些過于情緒化的詞語。

Avoiding emotive words can be difficult in a foreign language, but it is very important to try. Avoid words like ‘My dream is to answer this question’ or ‘I am starting this fascinating essay with a wonderful, and deeply enriching, tantalizing comment by the highly celebrated and world famous expert R. Smith’. You may personally think that Smith is wonderful and justly famous, but in an academic assignment, PEOPLE ARE JUST PEOPLE! Your argument depends on the content of your points, not on the fame or excitement of the topic, the author or your opinion.?

3 Avoid ‘some’

formal writing中，要使你的論據(jù)占的住腳，就避免模糊用語，例如some。

The British use ‘some’ in conversation all the time. BUT it does not have the same effect in writing. There, it appears weak; this makes you look as though you are not in control of your own argument. Try and use more positive expressions, like ‘a(chǎn) number of Ws’, ‘a(chǎn) series of Xs’, ‘several Ys’, ‘a(chǎn) range of Zs’.

4 Aviod 'as we all know' 'it can not be denied' 'there is no denying that...' 'everyone knows'... 'only by doing this, can we...'

無論是什么考試的閱讀理解，大家應(yīng)該都有一個(gè)印象，就是如果出現(xiàn)“all” “only”這類極端詞匯的選項(xiàng)，99.999999%肯定是錯(cuò)的。

Then why most of you keep using this kind of phrases in your essay? Remember, most likely, there is no single standard answer in social science--since people have different understandings towards different phenomena. Also, remember, the one you can represent is YOU yourself, but no one else. So you CAN'T say 'as we all know'! As I often DON'T know!?

5 Aviod 'as far as I am concerned' 'I think' 'in my opinion'

有人也許會(huì)奇怪，怎么這些也不能用？

The marker knows clearly that YOU have written this essay--so they know clearly that it is YOUR opinion! So why keep repeating these 廢話？記住，寫作千萬不要湊字?jǐn)?shù)。

看了這些寫作的注意事項(xiàng)后是不是對(duì)學(xué)術(shù)寫作更清楚了呢。有什么問題同學(xué)們可以咨詢私人學(xué)習(xí)管家哦。